The ‘Last Samurai’ Who Left Their Mark on History

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The reason for its existence disappeared with the end of an era

The film The Last Samurai, which follows Nathan Algren, played by Tom Cruise, as he becomes enchanted with the way of the samurai and eventually stands as one of the “last samurai” facing the end of an era, has left a profound impression on audiences around the world.
The climax of the story – when samurai carrying swords charge into battle against a modern, weaponized army – is a deeply moving moment.
This symbolic scene recalls a similar end-of-an-era event that actually happened in Japan about 150 years ago.

With the Meiji Restoration, Japan began its rapid journey toward modernization.
In this process, the samurai class system was dismantled, and the privileges that samurai had long prided themselves on were successively stripped away.
The decisive blow came in 1876 with the Sword Abolishment Edict (known as Haitōrei), which prohibited the public carrying of swords – the very soul of the samurai.
As the curtain fell on the samurai’s role in history, the question remains: Who were the “last samurai”?
Behind the film’s narrative lie two distinct historical truths that transcend fiction. Based on extensive research, this article traces the paths of two historical figures believed to have inspired the movie, unraveling the complex historical backdrop of the “last samurai” concept.

Table of Contents

Part I: Two “Last Samurai” – The Intersection of Fiction and Truth

The Last Samurai is a work of fiction, not a documentary or a non-fiction film that strictly adheres to historical facts.
However, its story draws inspiration from real historical figures and events.
The film features two “last samurai”: Nathan Algren, played by Tom Cruise, and Katsumoto Moritsugu, played by Ken Watanabe. It’s believed that these two characters were modeled on two different historical figures.

Nathan Algren is widely thought to be inspired by Jules Brunet, a French army captain.
Katsumoto Moritsugu, on the other hand, is believed to be based on Saigō Takamori, a key figure in the Meiji Restoration who nonetheless fought against the tide of change.
The film cleverly weaves together the stories of these two men – each a resistor in a different final phase of Japan’s modernization from the late shogunate to the Meiji era – to create a universal tale of the “last samurai.”

	Film Character	Historical Model
Characters	Nathan Algren	Katsumoto Moritsugu
Historical Models	Jules Brunet	Saigō Takamori
Origin	Former U.S. Army Captain (American)	Prominent Meiji Government Official (Japanese)
Affiliation	Pro-Shogunate forces during the Boshin War	Former Satsuma Clan samurai during the Satsuma Rebellion
Final Battle	Battle of Hakodate (Goryōkaku)	Satsuma Rebellion
Ending	Returned to France	Fought the Imperial Army with guns and committed seppuku
Historical Significance	Embodied loyalty and respect for the samurai way from a foreigner’s perspective	A tragic hero hunted down by the very era he helped create

As this table shows, the film skillfully merges the narratives of two people with completely different backgrounds.
Understanding this contrast is key to deciphering the deeper meaning of the film’s story.

The French Samurai Who Fell in the North: Jules Brunet

The model for the film’s protagonist, Nathan Algren, was Jules Brunet, a captain in the French artillery.
He arrived in Japan in 1867 as part of a 15-member French military advisory mission, invited by the Tokugawa shogunate to create a Western-style army to counter the British-supported Satsuma and Chōshū clans.
As deputy commander, Brunet led the training of the Denshūtai, an elite shogunate unit that grew to become one of the strongest armies of its time.

However, the situation in Japan changed rapidly with the outbreak of the Boshin War.
Despite orders from France to remain neutral, Brunet decided to resign from the French army and join the former shogunate forces with a few other officers.
He did so to honor the deep bonds he had formed with his students and with the Shogun, Tokugawa Yoshinobu.
In a letter to Napoleon III, he wrote, “I want to fight alongside my comrades in this country.”

Brunet traveled to Ezo (modern-day Hokkaido) with the former shogunate forces, joining the ranks as a military advisor to Enomoto Takeaki, the Shogunate’s naval magistrate.
His exceptional military skill was on full display during the fighting based at Goryōkaku in Hakodate.
He supervised the construction of ramps to move cannons into the fort and helped design the modern fort known as Shiryōkaku. His command ability was so outstanding that even reports from the new government army described the fortifications as “truly impregnable.”
When Goryōkaku was on the verge of falling, Enomoto arranged for Brunet and the other French soldiers to be evacuated on a French warship.
They vowed to one day reunite with the samurai and left Japan.

Upon his return to France, Brunet rejoined the army and was eventually promoted to general. In his later years, thanks to the efforts of his old comrade Enomoto Takeaki, he was awarded the Order of the Rising Sun, second class, by the Meiji government. In his descendants’ home in Paris, there are many detailed drawings by Brunet that depict Japan at that time, including a rare painting of the Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu and a sword given to him by Yoshinobu. These facts show that he was not just a mercenary, but a true “last samurai” who deeply sympathized with the spirit and culture of the Japanese samurai and upheld his personal values of “righteousness” and “loyalty.”

The Final Flower That Bloomed in the Southwest: Saigō Takamori

The story of Saigō Takamori, the model for Katsumoto Moritsugu, is entirely different from Brunet’s.
It symbolizes the self-contradictory tragedy of Japanese history.
Saigō rose from the ranks of a low-ranking samurai in the Satsuma domain to become a key figure in the Meiji Restoration, alongside Ōkubo Toshimichi and Kido Takayoshi.
However, his role in the new government did not last long.
He left the government in 1873 due to a conflict over his proposal for an invasion of Korea and returned to his hometown of Kagoshima.

Saigō’s departure from the government meant that the former samurai, who were growing dissatisfied with the Meiji government’s rapid reforms, had lost their figurehead.
To support them, Saigō established private schools that focused on academics and martial arts
However, these schools became a haven for disgruntled samurai, and the government began to view them with suspicion.

The samurai’s dissatisfaction was not caused by the Sword Abolishment Edict alone.
Their very existence and economic foundation had already been shaken.
With the start of conscription, non-samurai could now become soldiers, and the samurai’s job of “fighting” was gone.
Furthermore, the abolition of the samurai stipend system, or Chitsuroku Shobun, cut off the government salaries many samurai depended on, leading to widespread economic hardship.
The Sword Abolishment Edict was the final, critical blow, as it denied their identity by taking away the sword, which was considered the “soul” of the samurai.
These combined factors led to a series of samurai uprisings across the country, which culminated in the Satsuma Rebellion of 1877, the largest and last civil war in Japanese history.

The former samurai, led by Saigō, laid siege to Kumamoto Castle and fought a fierce 17-day battle at Tabaruzaka, a crucial supply route.
However, they were no match for the overwhelming force of the new government army, which was organized through conscription.
Saigō’s army was repeatedly defeated and finally met its end at Shiroyama, his hometown in Kagoshima.
Saigō embodies the tragedy of a man who was forced to stand as the figurehead of the old era, having lost his purpose and place due to the very policies of the Restoration that he himself helped achieve.

Part II: The End of an Era – The Context That Created the “Last Samurai”

The Haitōrei and the Collapse of Samurai Identity

The Sword Abolishment Edict was more than a law that simply took away the samurai’s swords.
It was a symbolic event that fundamentally shook the identity and purpose of the samurai class.
For samurai up until the Edo period, carrying a sword was a privilege that guaranteed their social status, and the sword was considered the “soul of the samurai.”
Taking away their swords stripped them of not only their social standing but also their spiritual foundation.

The Sword Abolishment Edict was implemented around the same time as a series of other policies aimed at dismantling the samurai’s economic and social lives, such as conscription and the abolition of the stipend system.
This left the samurai class in a triple bind, as they lost their purpose for fighting, their income, and the symbol of their status.
The fact that the edict intensified the samurai uprisings and ultimately led to the Satsuma Rebellion shows that the law took away their final refuge: their identity.
This suggests that the end of the samurai era was not the result of a single law, but rather the culmination of multiple factors that made the class’s demise inevitable.

The Reality of the “Last Samurai” That the Film Did Not Show

The film The Last Samurai portrays a romanticized version of the samurai and a sort of idealized end – a final charge with swords.
The scene where Katsumoto’s men charge with bows and swords against modern weaponry is the very essence of “samurai aesthetics.”

However, the historical reality of the Satsuma Rebellion was different from what the film depicted.
Saigō’s army was also armed with old-style guns and cannons, and the battle was a gritty, modern firefight.
The new government army was mainly composed of conscripted soldiers who were not necessarily of samurai lineage.
This fact suggests that the film intentionally omitted historical reality in its pursuit of entertainment and beauty.
The “last samurai” depicted in the film is not a reflection of historical reality, but rather a cinematic portrayal of the idealized final moment of the “bushido” we wish had existed.
This contrast between fiction and reality is precisely what makes the film so compelling and what highlights the importance of learning history.

Part III: The Legacy of the Satsuma Rebellion – The Japan That Emerged After the Samurai Vanished

The Costs and Changes Brought by War

The Satsuma Rebellion was not just a battle that led to the end of the samurai class.
It was a major turning point that transformed Japan into a modern nation-state.
This war had broad and lasting impacts on Japan’s political, social, and economic landscape.

First, politically, the defeat of the Satsuma Rebellion decisively proved that armed revolt against the government was no longer a viable option.
After the war, dissatisfaction with the government and demands for civil rights shifted from armed uprisings to political and intellectual movements, such as the Freedom and People’s Rights Movement.
This solidified Japan’s path toward becoming a modern nation that resolves its issues through law and politics rather than violence.

Second, socially, the new government army that defeated Saigō’s forces was primarily composed of conscripted “non-samurai” soldiers.
Their victory established the new value of “universal conscription” (kokumin kaihei) and helped strengthen the central government.
The war proved that a national army was superior to one based on old social classes and ranks.

Finally, economically, the cost of the Satsuma Rebellion was enormous, amounting to about 80% of the national budget at the time.
To cover this expense, a large amount of unconvertible paper money was issued, leading to severe inflation.
This financial blow eventually resulted in a period of fiscal tightening known as the Matsukata Deflation, which had a significant economic impact, especially on rural areas.

The Satsuma Rebellion shows that the end of the samurai era was inseparable from the beginning of a new one.
Japan paved its way toward becoming a modern nation on the very foundation built on the blood and sacrifice of the samurai who had been swept away by the changing times.

Conclusion: The Spirit of the Samurai Carried Across Generations

The Last Samurai is a film that elevates complex historical truths into universal themes.
The true “last samurai” may not have been specific individuals like Jules Brunet or Saigō Takamori, but rather the collective sum of all those who, during a turbulent era, upheld their beliefs and “righteousness.”

Brunet transcended national and cultural barriers to resonate with the samurai spirit and uphold his loyalty to his students and master.
Saigō, on the other hand, was pushed into a corner by the new era he helped create but still tried to protect the pride of the old one.
These two stories suggest that the “bushido” spirit of righteousness, loyalty, and integrity holds universal value, even as times change.

The samurai class has disappeared from history, but the spirit they embodied lives on in modern Japan in different forms.
The film asks us not only the historical question of “Who was the samurai?” but also the universal question of “How do you stay true to your beliefs?” The movie tells us that Japan’s modernization was built on blood and sacrifice while also conveying the tragedy and beauty of those who pursued their ideals across generations.